Abstract
This paper explores the complexity of the role of Project Managers through the use of metaphors. Metaphors are frequently used in daily life to make communication easier. In particular, a metaphor allows us to transfer specific and relevant characteristics from a subject we are familiar with to a subject which is less known or understood to ourselves or to our listeners. The first part of this paper discusses how metaphors can help us to get an insight on Project Managers’ perception of their role. As an initial step for discussion, the second part of the paper illustrates the results of an experimental research performed in Italy on a sample of Project Managers.
Introduction
The Project Manager Competency Development Framework (PMCDF) states that “self confidence” can be assessed as the “ability to see oneself as competent and as a causal agent”. (PMI, 2002, p. 65) However the PMCDF also states that “attainment of competence in personal competencies is much more difficult, since it deals with personality traits, motivators and drivers” (PMCDF, p. 70).
The ability “to see oneself as a Project Manager” is strongly linked to our perception of who we are, of what our skills are, as well as our beliefs, values, feelings and emotions.
To see ourselves as Project Managers entails a personal search of the interdependencies between project management knowledge, hands-on project experiences and our innermost thoughts and perceptions of reality.
Just as “the body of knowledge (of project management) rests with the practitioners and academics that apply and advance it” (PMI, 2002, p. 3), the key to comprehend the complex role of Project Managers rests with our perceptions. Our experimental research is aimed at defining the role of Project Managers through their perception, using metaphors as a linguistic device to address difficult concepts.
We have also found that many of the abilities required to create a metaphor are indicated in the PMDCF as performance criteria to be used to assess the “conceptual thinking competences” of a Project Manager, referring in particular to the abilities to “sees the project in a holistic way” (PMI, 2002, p. 64).
Therefore we inferred that the ability to create a metaphor completes the profile of a Project Manager.
What is a Metaphor?
A metaphor is a “figure of speech” in which a word (or an expression) is used to refer to something that it does not literally denote, in order to suggest a similarity. It so transfers the characteristics of an object onto another. Words and languages are by definition a “discrete symbol system” (Ortony, 2000, p. 47) which means that they partition our experience so that we can describe it, but they are, all the same, incapable of describing the complexity of the experience itself.
The figurative uses of language, and metaphors in particular, allow us to fill the gap between words and experience by taking colours, sounds, bodily sensations, feelings and emotions from one context and adding them where they are lacking.
Often the concepts we want to express are so complex that you have no choice but to use metaphors to obtain maximum meaning with a minimum of words.
Hence creating a metaphor implies the ability to simplify complexity, to observe interrelationships and to define similarity in dissimilar contexts. Long ago, on the shores of Greece, Aristotle declared the command of metaphors as “the mark of genius”. (Aristotle, 326-323 BCE)
How Does a Metaphor Work?
In his “Philosophy of language” I.A. Richards (1936) accepted the common definition of a metaphor as a mean to compare two terms. He further classified it and named “tenor” the term of which something is being affirmed.
He also defined “ground” the characteristics that the two terms have in common and “vehicle” the term used to form the comparison. The resulting phrase (tenor + vehicle) is the metaphor. Finally he defined the “tension” as the degree of dissimilarity between the two terms being compared.
The structure of a metaphor is shown in the following graphic: (Exhibit 1)
Exhibit 1: The structure of a metaphor
A metaphor we could use in daily language is “my hands are piece of ice!” Although we may feel very cold, our hands are not really made of ice. However both the human body and water are affected by outside temperature and this similarity constitutes the ground. Water below a certain temperature freezes and becomes ice. We avail ourselves of this attribute of water and use the word ice as the vehicle to express how cold our hands (the tenor) are.
By doing so we are doing more than comparing two objects or events, we are transferring a characteristic of water to our hands, and, in a very short and simple statement, we are conveying our perceptions and our experience with clarity and liveliness. Without touching our hands, another person would be able to know how cold they are, imagine the rigid fingers, the texture of the skin ...
One important point is that by using this specific metaphor we are assuming that whoever is listening to us knows that ice is a cold, rigid, transparent and smooth substance In this case, the degree of dissimilarity between the two topics is not considerable. Therefore the tension is not particularly relevant.
Innovative or poetic metaphors usually have a high degree of tension, i.e. “my hands are a winter storm”.
A few examples of metaphors used in poetry and narrative may clarify the meaning of tension and its use in figurative language.
“But look, the morn, in russet mantle clad,
Walks o'ver the dew of yon high eastern hill”
(Shakespeare, 1601)
“She often felt she was nothing but a sponge sopped full of human emotions”.
(Woolf, 1927)
Metaphors as a Learning Tool
The value of metaphors as learning tools can be expressed by their potential to transfer knowledge and understanding from what we know to what is less known to ourselves or to our listener.
Metaphors also help us to make the transfer from the logical and linear functions of the left hemisphere of the brain to the creative and systemic functions of the right side of the brain, thus achieving wholeness and giving our ideas intensity and depth.
In a learning environment metaphors create links between theories, models and our experiences and encourage personal interpretation and integration. Thus they make any learning process more vivid and memorable. When a child looks at the sky and sees the moon for the first time and it does not know the word “moon”, it will say “Look, a big lamp!”. In this case, to learn a new word would be easy and exciting. Similarly we may describe a project as a sailing trip: we have a chart to guide us but we must however keep our eyes open and if we come across an uncharted hazards, we must steer carefully and, if necessary, review our course.
Metaphors provide “food for thought” and trigger creative thinking as well as the sharing of ideas and experiences. For instance, metaphors are extremely powerful when working with people from different cultures. While the studies of M. J. Gannon (1994) have shown how cultural metaphors can lead to a better understanding of other cultures, we believe that creating a group or project metaphor can be an effective and long lasting team building tool.
To create a common metaphor helps team members to understand the other members and their values and it will provides a “common and unique language” for the team or project. Finally metaphors are a perfect “probing” tool when the issue to address is complex and multifaceted, such as the role of a Project Manager.
The Experimental Research
The research aimed to explore the perception Project Managers have of their role through the use of metaphors. It was performed on a sample of 156 Italian Project Managers who participated in Project Management training programs run inside their companies. The companies were all mid to large sized (between 300 and 3000 employees) and operated in different business area (mostly IT, with some finance and manufacturing). Participants in the training programs were all selected by their respective companies. They were all middle-managers or high-grade professionals with a solid hands-on project experience and the need to improve their understanding of Project Management models and methodologies. Their average age was between 30 and 45 years and most were male (90%).
Participants were asked to define their perception of the critical aspects of their role by using metaphors, freely naming one choice for each of the following categories:
- - If the project manager were a FLOWER, she/he would be a.....
- - If the project manager were an ANIMAL, she/he would be a.....
- - If the project manager were a COLOUR, she/he would be a.....
- - If the project manager were a HISTORICAL FIGURE, she/he would be a.....
The resulting metaphors provided an insight of their experience and of the values associated with their role. The gathered data was processed to highlight points of convergence and points of divergence. Points of convergence were further analyzed to identify symbolic values and meanings. Points of convergence below 3% were not considered relevant.
The following exhibit shows the complete results as February 27, 2004 (Exhibit 2).
Exhibit 2: Results of the experimental research
Data referring to “Animals” and “Historical figures” show the highest degree of dispersion.
The anthropomorphic denotation of these two categories provided a wider choice which resulted in a higher number of discrete preferences. In other words, thanks to the broader “ground” the resulting metaphor was more personal, but, on the other hand, the “tension” of the metaphor itself was decreased.
We shall now discuss the symbolical meaning of the results for each category, also mentioning a few peculiar metaphors which are not included in the above table but which we believe deserve attention.
Flowers
“The language of flowers” is a common metaphor which describes the use of flowers in different occasions and for different purposes. However, different countries use a different “language of flowers” (i.e. the same flower may be used to express love and joy in one country and sorrow and loss in another), so we must abandon their ordinary meaning to search for a deeper symbolic value.
Sunflower
“The common name of the heliotrope is sufficiently strong an indication of its solar character, the result both of the sun-ray pattern of its petals and of the way in which the flower follows the Sun's daily transit” ” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 952).
As all the representations of the solar principle, the sunflower is a symbol of the male sex, of authority and power. The petals of the sunflowers represent the rays of the sun, with a stronger positive meaning.
Indeed the sunflower seems to mellow the strong dualism of life-giving and destroyer which is one of the main symbolic characteristics of the sun.
Rose
“In beauty, shape and scent, the rose is outstanding and hence has become the most commonly used floral symbol of the West. Broadly speaking the rose corresponds to the status-wise lotus in Asia.” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 813). The rose denotes the attainment of perfection, the blossoming of life and passion. Often associated with red, it is the icon of rebirth and immortality.
Daisy
This small and common wild flower has not been troubled by too many symbolical values. Daisies are to be found everywhere, they grow spontaneously and they are often considered the emblem of coming Spring. It is widely considered a symbol of youth, purity, innocence, simplicity and shyness. Lewis. Carroll (1908) gives a lively portrait of daisies when Alice finds herself in a wonderland garden: “They all began shouting together, till the air seemed quite full of little shrill voices. (...) ‘If you don't hold your tongues, I'll pick you!’ There war silence in a moment and several pink daisies turned white” (Carroll, 1908, p. 31).
Animals
This category shows a notable degree of dispersion, in particular because there were many single indications of one species instead of the taxonomic family. Such instance is the group of birds. The single occurrences indicate various species of birds which are significant of specific traits: owl, falcon, kite, condor, all strong birds of prey.
Among the other animals recurring once or twice, we find fast and powerful animals like the panther, the cheetah and the tiger, quite different from the mysterious and far reaching octopus. At the opposite end we have the small but resourceful, and hard working, ant.
Lion
“A solar symbol of overpowering brightness the powerful, the sovereign King of the Beasts, the lion is burdened with the virtues and defects which are inherent in its status” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 610). In ancient cultures the lion symbolized “the revival of strength ensured by the cycle of day and night of exertion and rest” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 613).
In most modern cultures, lions remains as symbols of continuity as well as power, courage, self-confidence, “effortless strength” (p. 614), justice and wisdom. However the lion also symbolizes excessive pride, heedless authority and tyranny. This dualism is on the most interesting trait of the metaphor, casting a shadow and a warning on the brilliancy of the image of both the King of the Forest and the Project Managers. Finally lions protect the gates (a common iconography across Europe), a role they share with another symbolic vector, the dog.
Dog
Modern western culture generally invest dogs with the qualities of faithfulness and friendship. However ancient cultures associated the symbolism of dogs with death: “dogs are an universal phenomena and make their appearances in every culture in different forms which serve only to enrich this primary symbolism” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 296).
Dogs have knowledge of the visible and invisible sides of human life and help humans to cross over to the other life. In Greek mythology dogs have healing powers but, in other ancient and modern cultures, dogs are perceived as the most vile of all creatures.
In ancient Egypt, dog-headed divinities protected the entrance to holy sites and they have maintained the role of the best guardians even today. Today we may summarize the symbolic value of the dog in Western Europe as “faithful friend and guardian to the extreme end”.
Two people named a specific breed (one hound and one mastiff) and we assume the intention was to emphasize certain qualities of these breeds (to search and to guard)
Cat
“The symbolism of the cat varies widely from beast of good to beast of evil omen, explicably simply in terms of the combination of the gentle and the sinister in the creature's appearances” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 162). In ancient Egypt the cat-goddess was the guardian of humanity, but Celtic tradition strongly mistrusted this animal. In a way, the cat shares the dualism of the lion (which it resembles) and some of the symbolism of the dog, being often associated to the underworld. Today cunning and ingenuity, wisdom and magic, and its many lives are the distinctive symbolical attribute of the cat.
Colours
Max Lüscher (1969) studied the symbolic values of colour to be used in psychological tests. His definition of each of the primary colours is widely accepted and our choice for interpreting this category.
Another important source of information about colours and their symbolic values in western Europe is the medieval heraldry code. We have used some information from a heraldry code dating back to 1495.
Red
Red is the expression of vital power and symbolizes desires. It represents the need to obtain results, to be successful, to conquer. It is the colour of the impulse towards action, in all its form, from productivity to the direst competition. Red corresponds to blood, and its symbolic values changes according to the hue: bright red is a solar colour and it express activity and centrifugal force. Dark red symbolizes the female womb and the mystery of life. In heraldry, red is the colour of high dignity and authority and it represents the virtue of love and charity.
Green
Lüscher describes green as the colour of “elastic tension” (p. 54). It expresses the will to act and operate, tenacity and persistence. Its is the colour of analytical thinking, of good memory and accuracy. It expresses constancy, steadiness and self control. However, it is also the colour of pride and self-esteem. Green expresses the regeneration of life and it is connected to red and to the symbol of the rose, where life ascends from green and blossoms into red. In heraldry, green is the colour of spring and joy and hope, but it represents low ranks.
Blue
“Blue stands still and resolves within itself those contradictions and alternations of fortune – day following night-which modulate human life.” (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 1996, p. 103) Lüscher calls blue is the “colour of calm and sensibility” (p. 56). It represents stability and equilibrium, referring in particular to relationships. Indeed it symbolizes mutual understanding, loyalty, long standing relationships and, in general, friendship. Blue is the colour of eternity and never changing values. It is also the colour of deep inner satisfaction and gratification. In heraldry, blue represents loyalty, justice and truth.
Historical Figures
Data gathered in this category shows the highest degree of dispersion. We also note that the influence of the land of birth is stronger in this category than in others.
A notable number of metaphors come from the Italian heritage (Justinian, Augustus, Leonardo, Dante, Machiavelli, Pico della Mirandola, Marco Polo,) and the politics (various present-day Italian politicians, J.F. Kennedy,
W. Churchill, T. D. Roosvelt, M. Gorbachev). Only one female figure is named and was chosen twice: Mother Teresa of Calcutta.
The metaphors will be analysed following an archetypal classification.
Archetypes are inner guides “that have been with us since the dawn of time” (C. S. Pearson, 1991, p. 5) and can be found both inside and outside the individual human psyche. Inside they take the shape of our dreams, actions and perceptions, while outside we recognized them in myths, art, history and literature. Each archetype has a goal, faces a specific problem and/or fear and has a characteristic response to the task it is called to perform. Thus archetypes can aide our endeavours (positive influence or gift of the archetype) or hinder them (the shadow aspect of the archetype). Different archetypes are “active” in different moments of our life.
Once we discover them, we experience their positive and negative influence in daily life as well as in our “quest” for self-actualization. The quest towards self-actualization (which Pearson calls “the hero journey”) has a cyclic structure and recurs many time within our life span. The cyclic processes of the hero journey hold some resemblance with the project life cycle.
With a few exceptions, in our research all Historical Figures chosen to represent the role of Project Managers epitomize the following archetypes:
- the Warrior;
- the Seeker;
- the Ruler;
- the Creator.
Now we shall analyze the metaphors and the corresponding archetypes in detail.
Napoleon
Napoleon is one of the most complex figures of European history. The archetypes that best represent L'Empereur are the Warrior and the Ruler. The goal of the Warrior is to win. To do so it will confront the problem with courage and discipline, gifts which help us to accomplish the task of claiming our power and establishing our place in the world.
When developed, the Warrior within us helps us to choose our battles carefully and to fight for what really matters. The shadow aspects of the Warrior are single-mindedness, the desire to be above others, and the willingness to cheat to obtain status, power and money.
The goal of the Ruler is to establish and maintain order, finding constructive ways to solve any problem that may occur. The gift of the Ruler is responsibility, control and competence. The Ruler is a symbol of wholeness, of taking complete responsibility of our inner and outer life. The Ruler is the accomplished leader, whose mastery and wisdom assure the prosperity of its kingdom.
The shadow of the Ruler is the tyrant or the petty dictator of the home, using power and authority to destroy. Young Napoleon may well be an emblem of the Warrior, while Napoleon the Emperor reflects many of the trait of the Ruler.
Garibaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi, “the hero of the two worlds”, is an important figure of the Italian Risorgimento. He was the leader of the rebellions and conducted the military campaigns for the unification of the peninsula. The Warrior and the Seeker are the two archetypes that best represent this flaming hero.
The Seeker flees from conformity to search for a better life and to be true to itself. Ambition and autonomy are the gift of this archetype, which is always striving for a better world, for liberty and happiness. The search of the Seeker always entails a some form of wandering and the desire to help humanity. The shadow of the Seeker transforms the search into instability and personal ambition, pride and headless daring.
Columbus, Marco Polo and Magellan are three other historical figures who represent the Seeker.
Julius Cesar
Another Warrior! There are three stages in the development of this archetype: a first level when the Warrior fights to win and conquer; a second level when the Warrior abides by rules of fair fight; a third and last level when the Warrior strives to convince the other to support their goal. However, the strongest traits of Cesar's personality are said to have been ambition and an obsessive need to be independent and both these traits point to the shadow Seeker.
The archetype of the Creator is common to all the three figures. The goal of the Creator is “the creation of a new life, work, or a new reality of any kind” (p. 164). Its gifts are creativity, identity and vocation as well as the acceptance of diversity. Its shadow lays in obsessive behaviours: too many idea, too things to do, too much responsibility which prevent our true fulfilment.
A New Profile?
The results of our research create a metaphor, a hologram: on a red background, a sunflower stands between Napoleon and a lion ...
They also indicate a few strong points of convergence in the perception of Project Manger's role:
- temporary dimension (lion, sunflower);
- cyclic structure (rose, red, green, the archetypes of the Creator and the Seeker);
- control and competence (lion, dog, the archetype of the Ruler);
- loyalty (blue, dog, daisy);
- intrinsic dualism (lion, dog, cat);
- passion and commitment (red, the archetypes of the Warrior, the Seeker and the Ruler).
It also shows some dangers:
- pride (rose, green, lion, the archetypes of the Warrior and the Seeker)
- excessive or wrong use of power (lion, red, green, the archetype of the Ruler).
A note of sadness echoes through the metaphors, a sense of solitude, a certain loneliness which the proud lion shares with Napoleon in St. Helene, and the brilliant sunflower shares with the perfect rose...
Most of all the metaphors emphasize the need to create a new world for each project. A world where the Project Managers stands right in the centre as a centrifugal force of nourishment and protection.
An End and a Beginning
Our research is to be considered the first step of a more complex research project which aims to study new learning programs for the development of personal competencies for Project Managers.
The Project Managers who participated to the research were involved in a training program to develop their project management knowledge competencies. Their perceptions of the role of a Project Managers were based mostly on their hand-on experience. We would like to continue our research with Project Managers with different backgrounds and degrees of experience in all areas of competence.