Before this hole was ready for play, a lot of work and forethought were put into it. For the author project management is one of the most important tools in managing the design and construction processes for a hole like this one.
Designing and building a golf course is different from many construction projects. The typical construction project follows a definite pattern of determining the client's requirements, developing specifications, designing (from concept to detail), and executing those plans as closely as possible to the drawings and specifications. Designing and building a golf course is more of an evolutionary process. While some of the usual steps are followed as in the typical construction project, those steps are repeated over and over, generally on the site as construction progresses.
While decisions on details are required at the site on a typical construction project, those decisions are more technical than aesthetic. Constructing a golf course is just the opposite, and therein hangs a tale.
AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Games similar to our present-day golf have been played since the Middle Ages. But it was in Scotland that the game of golf evolved into a form recognizable to us. The earliest golf courses were found on the Linksland, which was publicly owned and which allowed the common person as well as the royalty the opportunity to participate in the game. Golf thus became a democratic tradition in Scotland.
The original Linksland course evolved on sandy deposits left hundreds of years ago by the receding ocean. The rich soil found on these early courses was deposited by rivers running from inland and leaving fertile soil here. The first rivers that contributed to these original courses were the Eden, Tay, and Forth. True Linksland golf courses evolved from God's hand, with very little influence from man.
A typical links course consisted of high sand dunes shared by the wind, and grassy hollows if the soil was fertile enough. The dominant grasses were bentgrass and fescue, which are naturally occurring in Scotland's salt water areas. These courses were without trees or ponds, but that didn't eliminate the hazards encountered on a typical round of golf Certain areas would be grazed barren by livestock. Sheep seeking shelter in the hollows would wear away the turf. Nesting holes of small game would collapse and the fertile topsoil erode away, leaving sand wastelands and pot bunkers. These areas are still dreaded and avoided by today's golfer.
Tees, fairways, and greens as we know them did not exist. It is speculated that the early greens were of the same bristly grass that grew everywhere else. The earliest golfers used rabbit holes for putting cups. The tee area for the next hole was one club's length from the cup. A well-manicured putting surface was not found on early courses.
The original courses did not require a superintendent and crew for maintenance. Bird droppings provided the needed fertilizer and rain the irrigation, thus providing a healthy turf. The sandy soil beneath the surface provided for excellent drainage. Grazing sheep and wild game kept the grass clipped. If the turf got too lush and long, the golfer simply did not play. The sandy wastelands and pot bunkers were raked only by the wind.
The earliest courses had no set number of holes: the early links at Leith and Musselburgh had five holes each; North Berwick had seven; Prestwick twelve; and Montrose twenty-five. The most recognized golf course in this early period was St. Andrews. Records indicate that St. Andrews existed in a primitive form as early as 1414 A.D. The original course probably differs greatly from today's because of the rapid recession of the sea in the last century. The layout of St. Andrews resembles that of a shepherd's crook. The course consisted of 12 putting areas. Ten of these were used by the player going outward and back homeward, thus the term “out” and “in” to designate which of the common holes a player was playing. The two remaining holes were only used once apiece, as the eleventh and home holes. Therefore a round of golf at St. Andrews consisted of 22 holes.
During the middle of the eighteenth century, innovations were added to the existing game of golf. One was the creation of private golf clubs; these members continued to play on the public links courses. The earliest private clubs were The Honorable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, established in 1744, The Society of the St. Andrews Golfers, established in 1754, and The Honorable Company of Golfers at Blackheath in 1766 (the latter was the first golf club established outside of Scotland). This growth continued into the 1800s and created the demand for golf course designers. It was during this time that man started to change some of nature's influence on the course at St. Andrews. Many of the changes made had an impact far into the future, when designers began to search for some basic principles for golf course architecture.
The first notable change was in the putting green. More attention was paid to the need to keep a healthy turf in this area. In 1764 The Society of St. Andrews Golfers felt that the first four holes were not challenging enough. They consolidated them into two long holes, eliminating two greens and two holes. Each hole was played twice in a round, nine holes “out” and nine holes “in.” This created a course with 18 holes.
Scottish legend disagrees with this explanation, and contends instead that a bottle of Scotch whiskey contains 18 jiggers and that the rate of consumption was that of a jigger a hole. The Society of St. Andrews Golfers contends that a round of golf should conclude with an empty bottle of Scotch.
Beginning of the renovation of the fourteenth hole of Highlands Falls Country Club, Highlands, NC, showing the installation of a retaining wall around the green.
Around 1833 the practice began of cutting two cups into the common greens. Two years latter King William IV recognized the St. Andrews links to be “Royal and Ancient.” The Society seized the opportunity to recognize St. Andrews as the “Home of Golf)” and itself as the authority on the game. Prior to this the links of Leith had generally been considered the Home of Golf The Honorable Company of Edinburgh Golfers disbanded at Leith in 1831. They were re-established at Musselburgh in 1836 and again at Muir-field in 1891. With continued deterioration of Leith, the original members could do little to dispute the St. Andrews claim.
The Making of a Golf Course Designer/Builder
C. Lewis Penland
Winston Churchill said that “Before we can know where we are going we have to know where we came from.” Before the Revolutionary War, my ancestors settled in the mountains of western North Carolina. They migrated here from Scotland and settled into an area very similar to their homes in the northern highlands of Scotland. These early settlers were rugged and resourceful people, bringing with them a strong sense of the family or clan.
My work involves a lot of time away from home. However, I have always placed my family above my work. Without understanding and constant support from my wife, Cindy, I would not continue with this career. We have a six-year-old son, Seth, who works with me on projects when he is not in school. His earliest designs have been in his sandbox at home. Our other son, Patrick, is two years old. I look forward to the time when he also joins us on projects.
I grew up in the construction business: my father had a grading and land clearing company. Some of his earliest projects were on the Blue Ridge Parkway in western North Carolina, which at the time was the largest landscape architectural project ever undertaken. My father then went into the land clearing business. Most of our projects included interstate highways, airports, and power lines. In 1968 Penland Contracting started clearing for major transmission lines for Duke Power. Today Penland Contractingis responsible for construction of a major transmission line through some of the most rugged and scenic terrain in western North Carolina. Japanese managers have toured the projects to study some of the techniques implemented in this rugged terrain.
After graduating from college, I was given a gift of a one-way ticket to Ketchikan, Alaska. E.J. Whitmire, the friend who gave me the ticket, said, “Get home the best way you can.” It was an adventure I will never forget. I was employed by the L.ouisiana-Pacific lumber company. The logging method we utilized was high line, which is best suited to rugged terrain, where roads are not feasible. While employed in Alaska I had the opportunity to work with some of the best people in this field.
I returned to Franklin, North Carolina, with my newly acquired skill. While logging in the Cashiers area our services were retained by Sapphire Lakes Country Club to log the land where they were constructing a new golf course. Tom Jackson was the golf course architect designing the golf course. After logging, he requested us to start land clearing and working with the other two grading contractors there. Winter in the Cashiers area is very wet and not conducive to construction, so the decision was made to stop work until the spring.
When we returned the next spring, we were the only contractors working on the golf course. Tom Jackson wanted us to build the course for him. During this time I became very interested in golf course design and entertained thoughts of returning to school to study it. Tom asked me to work on a course at his home in Taylors, South Carolina, and assured me that I would receive a thorough indoctrination into the business of golf course construction and design while working with him in the field. If I still wanted to pursue a degree, he would write a letter of recommendation for me. I received an education in the field that cannot be taught in a classroom. He taught me lessons that he had learned while working with two great architects, Robert Trent Jones and George Cobb. As Tom would say, “My eyes were trained that summer.” I have had the pleasure to work with some renowned golf course architects, but I still enjoy working with Tom the most.
The earliest lessons involved laying out a golf course on a raw piece of land. We would always walk the land several times and then start to determine the ideal green sites. While walking the land, we would look for the natural existing contours and integrate the golf holes in them. Tom taught me how to close my eyes and use my imagination to see the finished product. Some designers I have worked with have a detailed set of grading plans and literally force their designs on the terrain. The finished products appear artificial to me. The good designers today use general layout plans and do the final designing on site, very similar to the earlier designers. The land is our canvas and the bulldozer the paintbrush.
St. Andrews thus became the “Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews.” From then on, the standard number of holes on a golf course was 18, and any new courses were compared to St. Andrews. The original course was not altered by man until sometime around 1849. Until that time the average course was only 40 yards wide, bordered by heather. Today most golfers complain that the landing area is too narrow if it's 50 yards wide and the roughs are mowed to a height of three-quarters of an inch.
At this time, overseen by Allan Robertson, the long-time professional and clubmaker at St. Andrews, the heather was widened out and replaced with turf. These changes enabled the course to be played as either a right-hand course or a left-hand course. Also around this time a new seventeenth green was constructed, which was the first recorded introduction of some artificially-created hazards. When Mr. Robertson died in 1859, he was the first recognized designer of golf courses.
The early architects laid their courses out on the spot, and most took only a couple of days. They found natural green sites and then plotted the course from these. Little earth moving was undertaken, as the natural contour of the land was incorporated into the design. Existing turf was used and very little attention to future maintenance was considered. The only concern was for a readily avail. able supply of sand for topdressing the greens.
These minor changes have had far-reaching effects on the game of golf. Strategy was introduced: a player was no longer required to play the ball over every hazard, but could choose a much safer route, with a penalty of one or two strokes. Prior to this, St. Andrews, like most links courses, required forced carries over hazards and severely punished any stray shots out of the tight fairways.
Thus, at two different time periods, St. Andrews exemplified two different schools of architecture. The original design by today's standard would be considered a “penal design,” where the golfer isn't given the choice of a safer route to the green and is severely penalized for anything less than a perfect shot. After 1849 the course changes demonstrated the “strategic design,” which allows the player the opportunity to test the given hazards and be rewarded with less strokes or choose the longer, safer route to the green.
In an area where annual rainfall averages 100-130 inches, berms and drains are crucial in preventing as much stormwater as possible from ever getting onto the green.
Equally important is an extensive drainage system beneath the surface of the green, assuring healthy turf and fast return-to-play times after storms.
Anyone who practices the art of golf course architecture realizes the profound influence that St. Andrews has had on the game of golf now and forever. With the growth in the popularity of the game, construction of courses was required in areas other than Linksland.
Finish grading completed, ready for sod.
Golf Courses in America
Wherever the Scots traveled, they took the game with them. The first known export of golf from Scotland was to England, when a group of Scots constructed a seven-hole course at Black-heath in 1608. Another excellent layout was constructed around 1618 at Old Manchester on Kersal Moor. Around 1786 golf was introduced into Charleston, South Carolina. Scottish soldiers and engineers introduced the game to France in 1856, and constructed the Pau Golf Club.
The title of “Father of American Golf” was bestowed upon John Reid, a Scot who settled in Yonkers, New York. In 1888, Reid with several associates staked out a rough three-hole course near his house. Later that same year they staked out a six-hole course in a nearby pasture. A golf organization was formed and named St. Andrews Golf Club. Over the years, St. Andrews Golf Club has considered itself the oldest golf club in America. This self-proclaimed title is disputed by many. The Foxburg (Pennsylvania) Country Club contends that a nine-hole course was constructed on its site in 1887. It is also evident that the Dorset (Vermont) Field Club was in existence by 1886. J. Hamilton Gillespie, a transplanted Scot, played golf in 1883 in what is today downtown Sarasota, Florida.
Charles Blair McDonald studied as a youth at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. While attending the university, he was introduced to the game of golf. Upon returning to his home in Chicago in 1875, he constructed a homemade course on the deserted Douglas Field. McDonald constructed a seven-hole course at Lake Forest, Illinois, in 1892. In 1895 he constructed the nation's first 18-hole course for the Chicago Golf Club at Wheaton, Illinois. By 1896 there were over 80 known courses in the United States, and in 1900 there were approximately 982. At least one course was found in each of the 45 states.
The first professional brought to the United States to design a course was Willie Dunn, of the Musselburgh Dunns. He was fondly called “Young Willie” to separate him from his father “Old Willie.” Young Willie was commissioned to design and construct a golf course for the newly organized Shinnecock Hills Golf Club. The course was constructed on a links-style site at Southampton, New York, and was completed in 1891. The final creation was anything but perfect; however, given the inexperience of his crew and the primitive equipment he had, it was a miracle it turned out as well as it did. Dunn remained at the course as pro/greenskeeper. At first the course consisted of 12 holes. Dunn then added a women's six-hole course, which was later integrated with the other course, making it a full 18-hole course. The Shinnecock Hills course should have served as an example for other courses being constructed at that time; however, its inaccessible location prevented many developers from studying this excellent example.
The biggest contribution Willie Dunn made to golf in America was that of importing golf-related talent from his homeland of Scotland. He sent word back to Scotland that America was a ripe plum waiting to be picked. Some friends and acquaintances were lent travel fare. Some of these talented men were club-makers, others greenskeepers. They came here because Young Willie Dunn was convinced that the real future of golf was not in Scotland, Britain, or Europe, but in America.
ANATOMY OF A GOLF COURSE
When you tee your ball up on the No. 1 hole of your favorite course, you probably don't realize the artificial environment that exists there. With proper design and construction, the golf course will blend with its surrounding environment.
The chosen turf grass can vary from bentgrass to Bermuda grass, and will dictate the mowing heights. Tee areas are mowed at a closer height than are the roughs. The greens are the most manicured area of the golf course. The mowing heights on bentgrass greens can vary from 5/32” to 1/4”.
Another important area of the golf course not noticed by most golfers is the natural-appearing swales, designed to remove surface stormwater from the course. If properly constructed, these swales enable courses to more quickly open for play after a rainstorm.
Below the surface there is an irrigation system that has miles of PVC pipe and wires. The irrigation system is probably one of the most important items in the everyday maintenance of a golf course. Without it, modern golf courses could not be maintained to the manicured degree they are today.
Computer and radio technology have made great advances in the efficiency of the irrigation systems. Sensors in the field gather data on humidity, soil temperature and weather conditions, and transmit the data to a desktop PC. The data is analyzed and appropriate action taken as needed. The data is usually transmitted using radio signals. The golf course superintendent can monitor and control irrigation from a computer and modem or over a standard phone line utilizing voice-activated commands.
For any golf course renovation project, the design and construction phases are necessarily intertwined. The designer, with input from the course pro and maintenance superintendent, tries to discover the perfect hole, one the player will be challenged by, yet want to play again and again. Overall, project management is a very important tool in striking that perfect balance.
GOLF COURSE DESIGNERS
There are many notable golf course designers: some are credited with designing and constructing many courses, while others have only one or two to their credit. The first course designers were in Scotland. Old Tom Morris was the most recognized. Tom was a native of St. Andrews, where he apprenticed under Allan Robertson, the greenskeeper at the old course at St. Andrews. After Robertson's death, Tom Morris became greenskeeper.
Morris' most recognized contribution to golf course design was the use of the “double loop system.” This layout consisted of two nines with opposite rotations. Seldom did three successive holes play in the same direction. A golfer was required to contend with the wind in several different directions. The doubleloop system is still utilized today.
A young Scot, Donald Ross, apprenticed under Tom Morris at St. Andrews. Ross designed an awesome number of monumental courses in his time, including Pinehurst No. 2 in Pinehurst, North Carolina; Seminole Golf Club in North Palm Beach, Florida; and Oakland Hills Country Club in Birmingham, Michigan, to name a few. In all, over 600 golf courses were either redesigned or constructed by Donald Ross in the early part of this century. Anyone who has had the pleasure to play a Donald Ross course will agree that he was one of the finest golf course designers. The courses that were constructed at that time were done with horses and manpower, not the modem earthmoving equipment of today.
The sole purpose of the golf course designer is to imitate nature. Anyone who practices this art form develops their own philosophies and style. My preferences are more toward the natural and the classic design style. I believe that people today have enough frustrations and aggravations in everyday life; when they play golf the experience should be both challenging and enjoyable and the hazards should be visible from the tee boxes so that the player can choose the route best suited for his or her skill level.
Before ground can be broken on a new golf course, many hours of careful planning are required. The course designer requires a topographic map of the area being considered. Usually a site engineering plan is developed and any wetlands or critical areas are identified and taken into consideration during the planning process. The designer will then digitize the topographic map into a computer.
Once the data is in the computer the designer can begin to route the golf holes on the map. The routing plan will usually place the golf holes in areas not suitable for the housing that typically surrounds today's golf course. Most of these areas are usually in flood plains. The contour information of the entire development enables the golf course designer to estimate the storm runoff volumes and specify the proper storm runoff systems to protect the course when the development is fully constructed. The designers also can estimate cubic yards of material that will be moved to create the golf course. The amount of material that is moved can vary from as little as 250,000 to 1 million cubic yards. In some cases, where the terrain is very flat, large lakes are excavated to create the contours of the finished golf course. The final shaping is overseen on site.
The permitting process for golf courses can vary from a few months to several years. The modem golf industry is constantly striving to be good stewards of the environment. Most golf course designers are incorporating wildlife areas into their overall design. Storm runoff from the course can be reclaimed and recirculated through the irrigation system. Effluent water from the development can be used for irrigating the golf course. The golf turf helps filter the effluent water. Wetlands are protected and in some cases artificial wetlands are created. The golf course lakes constructed in western North Carolina are stocked with trout, which are good indicators of the aquatic environment.
A properly designed and constructed golf course is an optical illusion. We golf course designers work with shadows and different varieties of grasses to create different moods and feelings. When you step onto a tee box to play a hole, the designer's strategy for the hole should be made obvious to you. We place mounds, sand traps, water, etc., in an attempt to give the golfer the ideal route to the green. I have taken traps and placed them 25-30 yards away from the green, but from the golfer's point of view from the fairway, the traps appear to be only inches away from the green.
The tee boxes are another important area where we deal with the golfer's subconscious. If the tee boxes are aimed in the proper direction, the golfers seem to hit their ball that way. If the tee boxes aren't, they seem to have more difficulty achieving the proper shot.
Water is another way we work with the golfer's subconscious. If we can construct a hole with the tee boxes near a waterfall, the effect is very calming and relaxing for the golfer.
GOLF COURSE CONSTRUCTION
Golf course construction can be separated into two distinct categories: new construction and renovation. New construction involves taking approximately 150 acres of land and constructing an 18-hole championship course. Renovation can involve one or a few greens, or involve reshaping an entire hole from tee to green. The actual building of the golf course starts in the imagination of the designer and must be communicated to the builder.
Once the overall layout of the golf course is decided, the staking of the golf holes is started. The staking of the new course is very critical. The potential site is walked to get a feel for the lay of the land prior to actually drawing the plans. During the staking process in the field, we are able to see how the golf holes will be positioned on the existing ground. I personally prefer the method described by Donald Ross. He would always find the naturally suitable green sites and then work back to the tees. The staking process is the last opportunity to locate specimen trees, and to correct any design conflicts not revealed on the contour map. The yardage of each hole is measured and the clearing limits established. The first clearing limits will be narrow, approximately 50 yards. This initial narrow clearing limit will allow us to open up the hole slightly, and thus provide for better visibility.
The land clearing process is very important. Brush, stumps, and debris should not be buried anywhere on the course. I have encountered many situations on existing golf courses where buried brush has caused problems many years later. Some of these burial areas were placed under green sites, cart paths and fairways. These areas have sunken and caused extensive subsurface water retention problems. In most cases where the timber and wood is suitable, we recommend having it logged, with an on-site supervisor. After logging, the remaining debris is either burned or ground and chipped into mulch.
The erosion control systems are installed during the land clearing process. These systems provide protection from any offsite erosion. They will be constantly monitored and redesigned until the course is properly “grown in,” usually two years after play has started.
The rough grading involves moving of the majority of the material. This material can vary from sand, coral, clay or rock. During the rough grading stage of the project, great care must be taken to preserve certain natural-occurring contours and to create new contours that appear to be natural. We take what the land gives us and integrate it into the design process. For example, if large boulders or rocks are discovered during grading, they are moved aside and used to build retaining walls around greens, tees or lakes.
It is very important to have a contractor who has experience in golf course construction, or someone on site to oversee the contractor. Many contractors have experience in roadbuilding, where all slopes are symmetrical and uniform and the finished elevations are on a grade stake. On a golf course, the slopes are shaped more to resemble a natural-occurring contour. The final grades are determined in the field and few survey stakes are installed.
The finish shaping of a golf course is a very specialized field. All final grades and shapes will be constructed at this time. The shape of the tees, fairways, traps and greens will be completed during this process. If the rough grading was done precisely, the final shaping is very easy to complete. It is for this reason that we require our rough grading crews to also be involved in the finish shaping. When we hear a comment like “Leave it, the farm tractors will get it,” the next morning that operator will be doing the final shaping on the area he had rough-graded the day before!
The finish grading involves some specialized equipment. Most of the finish shaping is done with farm tractors with specialized attachments. Everyone has their own methods for preparing the golf course for seeding or sodding. We have developed our own implements for finish grading, and fabricate and install them on four-wheel-drive tractors.
The greens are the areas given the most attention during construction. The greens consist of an area from 5,000 to 10,000 square feet. This area will be excavated to a depth of 18 inches. The final contour of the greens surface will be determined at this time. All material installed will maintain a constant depth over the varying contours. Grade stakes are installed and the material will be graded to the correct elevations.
The bottom of the green will have 4-inch drain pipe installed at 10-foot intervals. Four inches of pea gravel will then be installed on top of the drainpipe. At this point it is optional to install a 4-inch layer of coarse sand. The newly revised United States Golf Association specifications has made this layer of sand an option. The next layer of material is the actual greens mix.
There are many different opinions concerning the proper mix. Some designers will utilize pure sand, blending soil amendments in. The blended amendments are usually naturally-occurring micro-organisms needed for proper root zone performance. Other designers will follow the USGA recommendations of a mixture of 80 percent sand and 20 percent peat moss. I have found the USGA recommendations to result in excellent-performing greens.
Sand traps found on modern golf courses can vary from a few inches deep to 20 feet deep. These depressions have a drainage system installed and covered with sand. The sand traps should be shaped so that they are proportional to their surroundings. Surface runoff water should be bermed away from the trap. Traps should also be constructed with the thought of future maintenance in mind.
The introduction of the golf cart has caused a new obstacle for the modern designer. Now we must incorporate a continuous pathway into the landscape. These paths can be constructed of several different materials. Concrete and asphalt are the most commonly chosen materials. The cart trails should be a minimum of eight feet wide, and installed following the contours of the golf hole. Whenever possible, the cart trail should not be visible from the tee boxes. We are usually able to hide cart trails in feature mounds created around the course.
Once the golf holes are finish-graded, the seeding and sodding start. At this time it is important to have the soil tested. The test results will indicate the necessary soil amendments needed for the type of turf grass to be grown there. After the seeding process, the grow-in golf course superintendent will constantly monitor the project until 100 percent of the proper turf grass is established. The golf course superintendents are very important people to have on site in the early planning stages. The superintendents that I've had the pleasure to work with have been very knowledgeable, and were tremendous assets during the construction and design process.
Opening day is the hardest day of a golf course project. I usually go to the course at 6:30 a.m. and look at a perfectly manicured piece of work, knowing that in a few hours the first divots will dot the landscape. We have taken a raw piece of land and found the golf holes that were hidden there. For many months your life is deeply intertwined in the land and its hidden character. After opening day, the course is no longer yours and you move on to another project, with a whole new set of problems.
MANAGING THE PROJECT
I manage these complex projects with many modern tools, the most important of which is my Macintosh laptop computer. I am able to take a lot of valuable information into the field now. I use Claris' MacProject for my project scheduling. The program allows me to use project networks and Gantt charts. My first exposure to these was at Western Carolina University; however, at that time we were required to do them by hand. With MacProject, I am able to do a lot of “what if' situations in minutes.
The project schedule is very useful when making presentations to clients. I once spent three hours organizing a project with a client. When I finished and packed up the computer, I thanked them for the opportunity to bid on their project. The client told me that there wasn't any need to bid on the project. I had been awarded the job when I unpacked the computer.
Before we start a project, we estimate the optimum time to seed or sod the turf grass. Once this is determined, we figure back to our latest starting date. Many factors can influence a golf course project, of which the most influential is the weather. We keep a close watch on the weather channel and plan accordingly. The weather is very hard to factor into an overall project schedule.
I use the computer to keep drawings and field notes. The greens are all drawn and grided on the Macintosh. The green is then staked on site using a Spectra-Physics laser tower instrument. This laser level is capable of accurate measurement of contours to the degree of 1/8” in a quarter of a mile. This enables us to construct greens with some very exacting sizes and contours. In the past the irregular shapes and features made it difficult to estimate square footage of greens (I use MacDraft to grid and size greens). The laser also has an attachment for equipment. We use the laser to level tees and grade storm runoff pipe.
The billing is also done within a database, and is allowing us to organize data into valuable information that is used during the bidding process. The database is very useful for budget and actual cost comparison. I am working on a database for inventory now.
The newest modern tool available to the golf course builder is the cellular telephone. In the past, much of my time was wasted going to phones and returning calls. I can now place a call on site while sitting on a piece of equipment. With an attachment, I can plug the cellular phone into my Macintosh and send or receive faxes in the field.
CONCLUSION
Golf course designers are continuously adjusting the design to create the most pleasurable experience for the golfer, both consciously and subconsciously. We are trying to see the next green just as the golfer sees it, complete with fairway, flag, sand traps and water hazards. Without that element of design, golf becomes a purely mechanical process. With proper design, each golfer has the opportunity to exercise not only physical skills, but also mental skills of strategy and tactics that best fit their own actual—as well as perceived—skills as a golfer. If each play of the course is a challenge that makes the player want to try it again and again, then we can truly call this a successful project. ❑